Artifacts of Empire: Social Darwinism in the 1860's

• The cartoon displayed here is a wood-engraving that was published May 18, 1861 in Punch magazine, Britain’s satire magazine that began in 1841 up until 2002.
• The phrase “Am I a man and a brother?” comes from Josiah Wedgwood’s pottery firm; created in 1787, the phrase is part of the British abolitionist seal with a pleading slave in chains asking for freedom. 
• Accompanied by the poem, “Gorilla of the Zoological Gardens”
• “Says Owen you can see, The brain of the Chimpanzee Is always exceedingly small, With the hindermost “horn” Of extremity shorn, And no “Hippocampus at all.”

Historical Context: What is Social Darwinism?

• Charles Darwin published his famous On the Origin of Species in 1859, proposing the theory of evolution, or a “one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings.” 
• Biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest being applied to sociology and politics
• Strong should have an increase in wealth and power
• Used to justify imperialism and racism while discouraging intervention and reform
• Imperial powers were naturally superior and control over other nations was in the best interest of human evolution

• During the 1860s, Britain had few colonies in Southern Africa as well as Sierra Leone. Its major colonies were next to the Boer’s independent free-state and whom the British would push against in the ‘Scramble for Africa’ and the Boer Wars in the 1870s-1902. 
• British tendency to emphasize competition and overlook cooperation and altruism

The Hippocampus Question

• Most scientists had defined humans as unique mammals due to their brains and so the center of the evolution debate was what differentiates humans from primates if they were supposedly evolved from one another. 
• Anatomist and paleontologist, Richard Owen argued that there was too great a difference between a human brain and a monkey brain for one to come from the other. However, Darwin’s greatest defender, biologist/anthropologist Thomas Huxley revealed the small fold in the posterior lobe aka the hippocampus minor is also found in the brains of primates and thus supported the theory of evolution. 
• Scientists continued the study of brains and used the evidence of African Americans’ smaller craniums as proof of lesser intelligence or that they were less evolved and ‘needed’ British interference in Africa.

Passages from Jane Eyre: How is it Related to this Cartoon?

• “‘Fearful and ghastly to me - oh sir, I never saw a face like it! It was a discoloured face - it was a savage face. I wish I could forget… the fearful blackened inflation of the lineaments!” (371). 
• “What it was, whether beast or human being, one could not, at first sight, tell… it snatched and growled like some strange wild animal… a quantity of dark, grizzled hair, wild as a mane, hid its face and head” (380).
• Jane describes Bertha with extremely racialized language - Brontë chooses to depict her as more of an animal than a human
• “‘I’ll be preparing myself to go out as a missionary to preach liberty to them that are enslaved—your harem inmates amongst the rest’” (410).

Discussion Questions

1. What might St. John think of this cartoon?
2. What biases does this cartoon convey? 
3. Why do you think the cartoonist chose the “Am I not a man and a brother?” quote? Why do you think he altered it?
4. In what ways does this cartoon parallel the depiction of Bertha in Jane Eyre? 

The Koh-i-Noor Diamond

Koh-i-Noor 

Weight (uncut): 191 carats = 1.35 ounces (after 1852 re-cutting): 105.6 carats = 0.75 ounces. Current dimensions: 1.4 inches long, 1.3 inches wide, and 0.5 inches deep. Age: Unknown. Estimated to be found between 1300-1500. Worth: Part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, which are estimated to be more than 3 billion dollars.

History of the Koh-i-Noor 

Koh-i-Noor, also written as Kūh-e Nūr, translates to “Mountain of light” in Persian. It was believed to be found in an Indian diamond mine, the exact date of discovery is unknown. The Diamond first came into written record in 1628 when the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan commissioned the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor was the head diamond of the gemstone peacock. Persian ruler Nader Shah invaded Delhi in 1739 and took the Throne to present-day Afghanistan where the diamond remained for 70 years. He returned to India in 1813 under the rule of Ranjit Singh who established the diamond as a symbol of prestige and power.

Acquisition by the British Empire 

As the British East India Company expanded their control over Indian commerce, they kept their eyes fixed on the Koh-i-Noor Diamond and vowed to seize the diamond by any means necessary. After violence forced the throne to pass between four rulers in only four years, the position was left to a ten-year-old boy, Duleep Singh. Following his mother's imprisonment, British officials made Duleep sign a legal document that forcibly relinquished the Koh-i-Noor to the British Crown in 1849. The Koh-i-Noor is now placed in the crown of the Queen Mother and was last seen by the public at her funeral in 2002.

Similarities of the Koh-i-Noor and the Moonstone

Koh-i-Noor

• “He who owns this diamond will own the world, but will also know all its misfortunes. Only God, or woman, can wear it with impunity.” 
• A pattern of gore, tragedies, and violence were apparent in the diamond's history 
• Stolen by English forces from Indian throne during British colonization

Moonstone

• “The deity predicted certain disaster to the presumptuous mortal  who laid hands on the sacred gem, and to all of his house and name who received it after him” (54)
• “The shrine of the four-handed god was polluted by the slaughter of sacred animals; the images of the deities were broken in pieces” (55) 
• “I got to the door, and saw the bodies of two Indians….laying across the entrance, dead” (56) 
• “John Herncastle, with a torch in his hand, and a dagger dripping with blood” (56) 
• “He declared in his boastful way, that we should see the Diamond on his finger, if the English Army took Seringapatam” (55)
• “Soldiers found their way, by an unguarded door, into the treasury of the Palace, and loaded themselves with gold and jewels” (56) 
• “the Diamond first fell into the hands of my uncle Herncastle, when he was serving in India fifty years since” (60) 

Similarities: Religion

Koh-i-Noor

• Some believe that the diamond was a gift to the world from the sun god Surya or that it was once in the possession of the Hindu god Krishna
• Others believe that the diamond is the Syamantaka, a famous jewel from Hindu mythology that is said to have magical powers
• Ranjit Singh planned to leave the Koh-i-Noor over to Hindu priests after his death

The Moonstone

• “The earliest known traditions describe the stone as having been set in the forehead of the four-handed Indian god who typifies the Moon” (53)
• The Moonstone is transported to another city when its home city is seized by a different leader: “[the Moonstone] was removed by night, and was transported to the second of the sacred cities of India - the city of Benares” (54)
• The Moonstone is also watched over by priests: “The deity commanded that the Moonstone should be watched, from that time forth, by three priests in turn, night and day, to the end of the generations of men” (54)

Similarities: Jewelry as a symbol of power and status

Koh-i-Noor

• Incorporated as the central stone in the Queen’s state crown fashioned for use by Queen Elizabeth at her coronation in 1937
• Queen Victoria often wore the diamond as a brooch, representing her high class and status
• “In many ancient Indian courts, jewelry rather than clothing was the principal form of adornment and a visible sign of court hierarchy, with strict rules being laid down to establish which rank of courtier could wear which gem in which setting… 
• The world’s oldest texts on gemology also come from India, and they include sophisticated classification systems for different kinds of stones.”(Boissoneault). 
• “The British public to be dismayed at how simple it was. “Many people find a difficulty in bringing themselves to believe, from its external appearance, that it is anything but a piece of common glass…” 
• The British thought of gemstones more along the lines of vanity, while the people of India thought of the gemstones as symbols of power, and were well-versed in gemology. 

The Moonstone

•  “as queen of the day, was naturally the great attraction of the party. On this occasion, she was more particularly the centre-point towards with everybody’s eyes were directed; for she wore (to my lady’s secret annoyance) her wonderful birthday present- the Moonstone… Mr. Franklin, had contrived, with the help of his neat fingers and a little bit of silver wire, to fix it as a brooch in the bosom of her white dress”(121). 
• Jewelry was one of the many indicators of class and status among people of the Victorian Era. The more jewelry worn, the more money one expressed as having, therefore placing them higher in status/ class
• Yellow Diamond’ 
• “Partly from its peculiar colour, partly from a superstition which represented it as feeling the influence of the deity whom it adorned, and growing and lessening in lustre with the waxing and waning of the moon”(53). 
• Superstitious, wealth-oriented, family. 
• “A similar superstition was once prevalent, as I have heard, in ancient Greece and Rome; not applying however(as in India), to a diamond devoted to the services of a god, but to a semi-transparent stone of the inferior order of gems”(53).

Questions

• How is the Koh-i-Noor diamond an example of the British Empire’s attitude toward Indian culture and possessions?
• What do the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Moonstone reveal about one’s class/status? Who gets to wear them?
• Should the British royal family return the Koh-i-Noor to its country of origin? Does their unwillingness to do so express the lingering effects of imperialism? 
• Wilkie Collins stated that the Koh-i-Noor diamond directly inspired The Moonstone. Do you think the sensationalized and popularized history of the Koh-i-Noor created the ideal national audience for publishing The Moonstone? 

About the work

"Her Royal Highness The Princess Victoria" is a mezzotint created by James Bromley in 1834. This work was a reproduction of Sir George Hayter's 1833 oil sketch of Victoria. The mezzotint is 415 mm x 307 mm and depicts Queen Victoria prior to rise to power. Sir George Hayter was responsible for numerous royal portraits and was later given the title of "Portrait and Historical Painter" by Queen Victoria after her ascendance to the throne.

A Future Ruler

Before she was the Queen of England, she was Princess Alexandrina Victoria and she was raised by royalty from birth. Victoria was born May 1918 and died January 1901. When she was fourteen years old (in 1834), two different artists helped create a portrait of her. One, Sir George Hayter, was later appointed to an official position by Queen Victoria and created her official royal portrait. Three years later, William IV died and Victoria was crowned queen.  As a royal, Victoria was often portrayed as she is here--beautiful, wealthy, intelligent and royal. Her opulent dress and lavish accessories served as a reminder of her status and wealth, while the globe and books serve as symbols of her intelligence and, later, of her extensive empire. With the addition of Windsor Castle in the background, there could be no denying the authority of this future ruler.

The Bronte's and the Queen

The father of the Bronte's often read the 'John Bull' paper. The fictional 'John Bull', who at the time was the British equivalent of America's 'Uncle Sam' character, was featured in a weekly newspaper. It was from reading this paper that the Bronte's developed a fierce loyalty to the crown.

When Princess Victoria became queen, Emily and Anne wrote the following in their shared journal: "Tabby in the kitchin – the Emprerors [sic] and Empresses of Gondal and Gaaldine preparing to depart from Gaaldine to Gondal for the coronation which will be on the 12th of July. Queen Victoria ascended the throne this month."

Several years later, the Bronte sisters had their respect to Victoria reciprocated, as not only did the queen read Charlotte's novel Jane Eyre and love it, but recorded her thoughts in her diary as well. The queen wrote "Finished 'Jane Eyre', which is really a wonderful book, very peculiar in parts, but so powerfully and admirably written, such a fine tone in it, such fine religious feeling, and such beautiful writings.

Passages from Jane Eyre

"'... my mission is to mortify in these girls the lists of the flesh; to teach them to clothe themselves with shame-facedness and sobriety, not with braided hair or costly apparel...'

...They ought to have come a little sooner to have heard his lecture on dress, for they were splendidly attired in velvet, silk, and furs." (127)

"I never can bear being dressed like a doll by Mr. Rochester, or sitting like a second Denae with the golden shower falling daily around me. I will write to Madeira the moment I get home." (354)

"'I hope that sigh is from the heart, and that you repent of ever having been the occasion of discomfort to your excellent benefactress.'

'Benefactress! Benefactress!' said I inwardly: 'They all call Mrs. Reed my benefactress; if so, a benefactress is a disagreeable thing.'"

"Yes, the future bridegroom, Mr. Rochester himself, exercised over his intended a careless surveillance: and it was from this sagacity--this guardedness of his--this perfect, clear consciousness of his fair one's defects--this obvious absence of passion in his sentiments towards her, that my ever torturing pain arose." (265)

Discussion Questions

1. Why do you think the Queen was so enthusiastic about Jane Eyre?

          - Are there any connections between their lives?

2. Did you think Jane Eyre would shy away from or welcome the idea of her being in a portrait?

          - Would it affect her character in any way? Would it give her confidence, make her question                   her sense of self-worth, etc.

3. How might Jane react to viewing this portrait of the Queen, given what we know of her reaction to authority figures?

Unknown woman, formerly known as Florence Nightingale by Augustus Egg, c. 1840s

About the work
Unknown woman, formerly known as Florence Nightingale is an oil painting done by Augustus Egg. It is a portrait painting that is 17.1cm x 10.8 cm and supposedly depicts English nurse and statistician Florence Nightingale. Egg is best known for his modern triptych "Past and Present" which shows the breakup of a middle-class Victorian family. Egg was also an active organizer of exhibitions, being admired by fellow-artists for his dedication and fair mindedness. He was one of the organizers of the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition in 1857. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1860. By 1910, Mrs. W Rathbone would donate this piece to the "National Portrait Gallery" in London.

Reflection of life in Britain
- Florence’s father gave her a classical education, as well as education that was deemed improper and unusual for a woman in her time: mathematics and philosophy.
- These two subjects changed her perception of the world and gave her unique thinking abilities that influenced her life’s work (Alligood, 52).
- This also led her to write her essay “Cassandra”, where she critiques the Victorian family and describes “domestic duties” as “bad habits”.
- Nightingale refuses her family’s begs to marry.
- Nursing in England in the early to mid-1800s was not a respectable position. It was not considered professional.
    -->Florence Nightingale turned nursing into a career.
- Arguably, the turning point in Florence Nightingale’s life came in 1844 where she decides to go against her family’s wishes and left to work in a hospital.
   -->This changed the career of nursing and helped it evolve to what we have today.

The Portrait In Regards to Jane Eyre
- The neutrality of Nightingale’s facial expression demonstrates the societal expectation of women to stay silent/handle bearings of everyday life.
     --> A woman’s role in the Victorian Era included domesticity, chastity, being the “Angel In the House,” “separate spheres” between women and men, and tame sexual desires (if she was deemed to have any).
     --> “Women feel just as men feel; they need exercise for their faculties, and a field for their efforts as much as their brothers do; they suffer from too rigid a restraint, too absolute a stagnation, precisely as men would suffer; and it is narrow-minded in their more privileged fellow-creatures to say that they ought to confine themselves to making puddings and knitting stockings..” (178).
             ---->The lack of emotion in Nightingale’s portrait parallels with the limitations placed on women in Victorian society. It shows the lack of authority she possesses over her own face, which is similar to the fate predetermined by society in which she doesn’t possess her own identity and she’s a mere shadow of her husband as a result of marriage and other societal norms that make women subservient.
- The depiction of beauty/19th-century feminism
    --> “The Victorians believed cleanliness was next to Godliness, and with it came morality and the desire to be respectable” (Fleming).
     --> A woman’s hair was her “crowning glory” (Fleming).
     --> “...the clothed hyena rose up, stood tall on its hind feet..she parted her shaggy locks from visage, and gazed wildly at her visitors. I recognize well that purple face, bloated features” (379).
     --> “Compare these clear eyes with the red balls yonder - this face with that mask - this form with that bulk” (381).
              ---->The clearly racist distinction of beauty standards among British society is a clear indication of the lack of inclusion in 19th-century feminism as it completely ignores non-white women, specifically Black women and includes stereotypical phrases associated with that of colonization and the need to “cleanse” and “bring light” to the “dark continent.” Jane comparing herself to Blanche and feeling subservient while comparing herself to Bertha and instantly putting herself on a pedestal is a clear marker of Victorian societal thought in terms of the social rankings of Black people. 

Discussion Questions
1. Literary critic Elizabeth Rigby said that if it [Jane Eyre] was the product of a female pen, then it was the writing of a woman "unsexed." Why were people caught up about female writers and does this invalidate the experiences/feelings that come with being a woman?
2. Regarding the previous comments in our presentation about the perceptions of “beauty” during the Victorian era; what do you think Jane’s perception of “beauty” is?
3. How did Florence Nightingale influence the Jane Eyre era of women (how are their backgrounds, tribulations, and personalities similar)?
4. “My business is to live without him now… I must seek another interest in life to replace the one lost (Brontë 503). How does the power dynamic of Jane and Mr. Rochester’s relationship shift by the end of the novel? How can you connect this with Florence Nightingale?
5. In, The Nursing Pioneer, Florence Nightingale writes, “Women never have a half-hour in all their lives (excepting before or after anybody is up in the house) that they can call their own, without fear of offending or of hurting someone” (Nightingale). What does she mean by this and how can it be connected to Victorian era stereotypes?